Countering Fake News: A Survey of Recent Global Initiatives

Abstract

Fake news, while not a novel phenomenon,1 has seized global attention in the wake of the US presidential election in 2016. Fake news in the digital era span a spectrum of categories, with varied but at times overlapping motivations: political, subversive, financial and entertainment.2 The impact of fake news is amplified through: (i) internet platforms, which publish content with significantly lower cost, wider reach and rapid circulation; (ii) social media, which enables more people and groups of various persuasions to interact even as they consume, produce and re-circulate content; and (iii) artificial intelligence (AI) agents that automate the work of human propagators. The term “fake news” is also used by parties to denigrate content or points of view at odds with their own beliefs.3 Fake news becomes a national security issue when it undermines the foundations (e.g., social cohesion, public institutions, peace and order) of the nation state. In this regard, fake news could serve as a tool for disinformation campaigns: the intentional dissemination of false information for influencing opinions or policies of the receiving audience.4 An example is the revelation that Russian operatives have uploaded socially and politically divisive social media content to influence the outcome of the 2016 US Presidential election.5 A notable case in Singapore is the conviction of a couple in 2016 for operating a seditious website (The Real Singapore) that generated advertising revenue by propagating falsehoods that fuelled xenophobia.6 Unsurprisingly, researchers and policymakers worldwide have sought not just to understand the phenomenon, but also to develop strategies, including new laws, to curb its spread.